Predictores y correlatos del comportamiento prosocial de adolescentes mexicanos / Predictors and correlates of prosocial behavior of Mexican adolescents

La conducta prosocial comprende comportamientos altruistas en favor de otras personas y conlleva un beneficio social mayor como la cooperación y el apoyo y cuidado de los demás. El comportamiento prosocial resulta también en un beneficio personal al tener éste un efecto social positivo para quien lo realiza, asociado a resultados significativos para el ajuste psicosocial de los jóvenes. El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar predictores de la conducta prosocial en adolescentes mexicanos que viven en condiciones de pobreza. Se analizaron los datos de 1093 adolescentes, provenientes de una muestra nacional probabilística de hogares de localidades rurales y urbanas que están inscritos en un programa gubernamental de combate a la pobreza (55.8% hombres, 61% urbanos, edad promedio 14.92 años y escolaridad promedio 8.33 años cursados). No se encontraron diferencias en conducta prosocial por tipo de localidad; pero sí por género en favor de las mujeres, aunque el tamaño del efecto fue pequeño. El modelamiento de ecuaciones estructurales mostró que niveles más elevados de conducta prosocial dependen de mayor competencia social, relaciones positivas con los pares, apoyo social general y de amigos, estilo parental permisivo y soledad; así como de menor oposicionismo y menor cantidad de menores de 12 años en el hogar. El modelo explicó el 60% de la varianza de la conducta prosocial en los adolescentes. Los mejores predictores de la conducta prosocial fueron el comportamiento social y el apoyo percibido: Quienes son socialmente más eficientes, exitosos y más apoyados, tienden a retribuir con mayor altruismo hacia sus pares.

Prosocial behavior refers to altruistic behavior in favor of other people. Prosocial behavior also results in a personal benefit for those who perform it, because it has a positive social effect and plays a transcendental role in the development of young people and their psychosocial adjustment. The present study analyses some social behaviors of adolescents living in poverty, with the aims of determining the predictors of their prosocial behavior and possible differences in prosocial behavior by gender and by type of place of residence. Two hypotheses were tested: that there are gender differences in the prosocial behavior of adolescents and that the social behavior of adolescents predicts their tendency towards prosocial behavior. No hypothesis was established for the type of locality. In this survey participated 1093 adolescents, 55.8%men, 61% from urban localities, average age of 14.92 (SD = 1.29) years, and average schooling 8.33 (SD = 1.71) years. Access to the national registry of the government's poverty reduction program was attained, from which a probabilistic selection of registered households was obtained, with national representativeness for the rural and urban domains. Households with adolescent children were selected from the national sample of households, to visit them in a second survey to interview the children of the heads of these households. Analyses were conducted to determine differences in prosocial behavior by gender and urbanization. Results showed that male and female scores differed significantly, in favor of females. However, the prosocial behavior scores of rural and urban youths did not differ significantly. To identify potential predictors of prosocial behavior, a structural equation modeling was performed. The model included a latent variable called Socialization, which was made up of scales that measure social competence, positive relationships with peers, social support and support from friends. Permissive parental style, oppositional behavior, loneliness, religiosity, and the number of children under 12 in the household were also tested. The resulting model showed that Socialization was the main predictor of the prosocial behavior of adolescents. Permissive parental style and loneliness were also positive predictors of prosocial behavior; while oppositional behavior and the number of children under the age of 12 in the household predicted it negatively. The tested model reached an adequate fit and explained 61% of the total variance of prosocial behavior. The present data supported the hypotheses of the study since we observed gender differences in the prosocial behavior of adolescents; and the structural equations modeling confirmed the relative importance of indicators of social behavior, grouped into Socialization, in the prediction of prosocial behavior. However, prosocial behavior did not differ by type of residence. The findings confirmed the close relationship between interpersonal relationships, social support, and prosocial behavior; since those who were socially more efficient and successful, and received more support tended to reciprocate with greater altruism towards their peers. Additionally, less oppositional behavior was associated with greater altruism. The positive relationship between loneliness and prosocial behavior indicated that the tendency towards social isolation promotes altruistic behavior. Results also suggested that less disciplinary parental control promotes behavior in favor of others; but not the coexistence with young children. No direct relationship between religiosity and prosocial behavior was found. Among the strengths of this study should be mentioned that the results obtained came from a national probabilistic sample of households and the large size of the sample; as well as some caveats like the cross-sectional design of the survey and the use of self-reports. However, we consider that it is possible to use the present results in the planning of intervention strategies with adolescents, with the purpose of stimulating prosocial behavior in future generations.

Expectativas laborales en la adolescencia: Correlatos psicosociales / Employment expectations in adolescence: Psychosocial correlates

Las expectativas laborales positivas representan la confianza que tienen los jóvenes de un futuro prometedor en términos de desarrollo laboral y económico. La obtención de un trabajo cualificado y un mejor ingreso es importante en el ajuste social adecuado en la vida de los jóvenes. Este estudio analiza la influencia de distintas variables psicosociales de hijos y padres sobre las expectativas laborales de los hijos adolescentes de beneficiarios del Programa Oportunidades. Los hogares inscritos en este programa son considerados como hogares que viven en condiciones de pobreza. Se analizaron datos de 1.093 jóvenes (55.8% hombres), con un promedio de edad de 14.92 (±1.29) años y de 1.049 madres y 545 padres con una edad promedio de 46.21 (±13.43) y 49.58 (±14.17) años, respectivamente. Se realizaron regresiones lineales múltiples con variables medidas en los padres y las madres por separado, con las que se identificaron predictores significativos de las expectativas laborales positivas de adolescentes que viven en condiciones de pobreza, provenientes de entornos tanto urbanos como rurales. Los resultados indican que la esperanza de obtener estabilidad económica en el futuro en estos jóvenes depende más bien de aspectos personales, por ejemplo, habilidades sociales y de aspectos familiares, por ejemplo interacciones familiares no punitivas ni coercitivas; más que del género o de sus habilidades cognitivas, aunque los jóvenes de localidades urbanas reportan perspectivas laborales más optimistas. Los datos provienen de una muestra probabilística nacional de hogares beneficiarios del Programa Oportunidades en México, lo que permite extender los resultados a otros jóvenes que viven en condiciones similares.

Positive employment expectations represent the confidence that young people have of a promising future in terms of employment and economic development. Obtaining a skilled job and a better income is important in terms of the adequate social adjustment of youth to the adult life. The aim of this study was to determine what factors may predict positive employment expectations in the adolescent offspring of beneficiaries of the Opportunities Program of Mexico. Households enrolled in this program are considered as households living in poverty. The program aims to reduce poverty in the current generation by conditioned cash transfers; in order to alleviate poverty in the next generation through investment in the offspring’s human capital (education, nutrition, and health). The participants come from a probability sample of beneficiaries of Opportunities households with program-recertification data and proceeding from non-indigenous communities with 45 or more households. From this selection, a national sample of 2112 households was obtained. Of these 2112 households, in the first survey were interviewed the program household holder, which is usually the wife or a single parent, and the spouses, if they were available. Subsequently, from the original 2112 households there were selected those households with teenage children and we returned to those households in the second survey to interview the teenage children of the program household holder interviewed in the first survey. Data of 1093 children, 1049 mothers, and 545 fathers were obtained from both surveys. The sample of children had an average age of 14.92 (± 1.29) years, 55.8% of them were male, and 55.2% lived in an urban area. The sample of mothers had an average age of 46.21 (± 13.43) years, and the sample of fathers had an average age of 49.58 (± 14.17) years. Self-reports from both children and parents were obtained separately from both surveys. Self-reports from the children measured work expectations, cognitive abilities, psychopathology, social competence, school attitude, relationship with peers, social support, adverse life events, and perceived parenting practices and family conflict. Self-reports from the parents measured self-control, achievement motivation, social maladjustment, and social competence. Two models of multiple linear regression were performed to analyze the influence of the variables measured in the mother and father separately, in addition to the measured variables in the children.The results showed that the perception of social competence at school, positive attitude toward school, and social support consistently played an important role in predicting positive employment expectations. Positive peer relationship also has a positive influence; so that higher perceived social popularity predicted higher level of positive work expectations. Additionally, behavioral control parent practices, as perceived by the children, positively influenced the employment expectations of the adolescents. In contrast, the report of externalizing symptoms reduces their employment prospects. Likewise, maternal practices of autonomy, parental psychological control practices and conflicting family relationships, as perceived by the children, negatively affect the positive employment prospects of young people. Neither the gender of the adolescents nor their intellectual abilities influenced their work expectations; but the type of locality they live in did: the urban adolescents reported higher levels of positive work expectations. In summary, this analysis allows to identify significant predictors of positive work expectations of adolescents living in poverty, from both urban and rural settings. The results suggest that increasing the hope of gaining economic stability in the future largely depends on stimulate the social skills of young people and on eradicate punitive and coercive family interactions. It can be expected that interventions to improve social skills of the adolescents and to encourage more positive family interactions would promote greater economic stability in the future of young people living in poverty.

Elaboración de una Escala de Apoyo Social (EAS) para adultos / Elaboration of a Social Support Scale for adults

El apoyo social se ha definido como las transacciones interpersonales instrumentales que implican ayuda en todas sus vertientes, tales como emocional, económica, implícita, explícita, etc. La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo elaborar una escala que midiera el apoyo social para la población mexicana en situación de pobreza. Se tomaron como base dos instrumentos: la Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support y el Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors. La muestra la conformaron 913 personas de ambos sexos. Un análisis factorial permitió observar la emergencia de tres componentes: 1) apoyo social, 2) apoyo familiar y 3) apoyo de amigos. Los tres factores explican el 66.24 % de la varianza y tienen índices de confiabilidad adecuados que oscilan entre 0.71 y 0.94.

The social support has been defined as the interpersonal instrumental transactions that involve help in any of its forms, such like emotional, economic, implicit, explicit, etc. The present research was aimed to devise a scale to measure the perception of social support in Mexicans living in poverty. The scale was based on two instruments: 1) The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and 2) The Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors. The sample was conformed by 913 people, men and women. A factorial analysis resulted in an internal structure of three components: 1) Social support, 2) Family support, and 3) Support from friends. The three factors explain 66.24% of the total variance and have adequate alpha coefficients that oscillate between 0.71 and 0.94.

Desarrollo de una escala de medición de la resiliencia con mexicanos (RESI-M) / Construction of a measurement scale of resilience in mexicans (RESI-M)

Las personas que viven situaciones muy adversas, pueden sufrir consecuencias muy serias en su desarrollo psicológico. Sin embargo, se ha podido constatar que algunos individuos logran no solo superar la adversidad, sino incluso salir fortalecidos de ella. A estas personas se las llama resilientes. La resiliencia no es unidimensional o un atributo dicotómico que las personas tienen o no tienen; implica la posesión de múltiples habilidades en varios grados que ayudan a los individuos a afrontar (Reivich & Shatté, 2002). El objetivo del trabajo que se informa fue desarrollar un instrumento con población mexicana (Escala de Resiliencia Mexicana, RESI-M), tomando como base dos escalas que miden la resiliencia en adultos: The Connor - Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) de Connor y Davidson (1999) y The Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA) de Friborg, Hjemdal, Rosenvinge y Martinussen (2001) para lo cual participaron 217 sujetos de 18 a 25 años, de ambos sexos. Los resultados muestran que 43 ítemes cargaron en cinco factores: (1) Fortaleza y confianza en sí mismo, (2) Competencia social, (3) Apoyo familiar, (4) Apoyo social y (5) Estructura. Asimismo, se observó que existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los factores de la resiliencia, de acuerdo con el sexo, la edad y el estado civil, observándose que las mujeres obtienen puntajes más altos en apoyo social, el grupo de más edad tiene un mayor promedio en competencia social y apoyo familiar y final-mente las personas casadas se sienten más fuertes y con más confianza en sí mismas y los solteros perciben un mayor apoyo social en comparación con los casados.

People who live through adverse situations may experience serious consequences in their psychological development. However there is evidence that show that many individuals have not only been able to overcome such difficulties but have emerged stronger from them. These people we may call resilient. Resilience is not a dimensional or a dichotomous attribute that individuals have or have not; it implies the possession of multiple habilities in some level that help individual to cope (Reivich & Shatté, 2002). The object of the current study has been to develop a scale with Mexican population (Mexican Resilience Scale RESI-M) the use of two scales which may be used to measure resilience in adults. The Connor- Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC, 1999) and the Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA - Friborg, Hjemdal, Rosenvinge, & Martinussen, (001)). The research included 217 adults between the ages 17 to 25 of both sexes. The results showed that of the 43 recognized items, five factors have been formed. (1) Strength and confidence in theirselves: Personal competition, high standards and determination. It is the conviction that one is sufficiently prepared to be able to face any situation that appears even if unforeseen. It is the conviction that, although not all the answers might be known, one can look for them and find them. It refers to the set of positive expectations on oneself or more specific oneself actions, as well as to the aptitude to accept or to cope with events in spite of the stress that they may inflict with it. (2) Social competence: Capacity or ability of the subject to interact in a successful way with his environment and to achieve the legitimate satisfaction of his needs, upon exercising determined influence on his similar (in the sense of to be taken into account), is a quality very related to the health, the emotional adjustment and the welfare of the individuals. (3) Family support: It refers to the time that the members of the family share, the loyalty that exists among them and the fortress of the family ties. (4) Social support: It refers tothe existing links among the subject and a definite assembly of people, with which is feasible the exchange of communication, solidarity and confidence. (5) Structure: It is understood like the rules and the activities that carry out the people and that facilitate them to have organization and order in their life. At the same time they observed the existence of statistical differences in the factors of the resilience according to gender, age and marital status, observing that women obtained higher scores in social support, the older group has higher scores in social competence and familiar support and finally, married people feel emotionally stronger and higher self-confidence and single group senses higher supported (social support) than married. To conclude we can affirm that according to the results of this study, it can be observed that this construct is multidimensional since includes abilities of diverse type that help the individuals to cope in life. The RESI-M contains five dimensions, in which they are grouped some of the characteristics that emphasize the resilient answers in different levels: individual, family and social. The individual level is very important since this related to behaviors such as to set goals, to be motivated, to be engaged, to have self-control, to be responsible, to make decisions, to confront pacific and objectively the problems, to have an internal locus of control and a sense of life, as well as to be optimist, they are very powerful tools to confront difficult situations. It is considered besides that the family support is the most important social backup, since is in the family breast where is educated the children, security offers them and so much material as emotional support. Nevertheless other sources of support exist such as the school, the friends, the tutors, among others, that also they respond to the needs of the individuals.

El proceso de admisión como predictor del rendimiento académico en la educación superior / The process of admission as a means of predicting academic performance in higher education

El objetivo de esta investigación fue conocer la validez predictiva del proceso de admisión en el rendimiento académico, en el primer año de la licenciatura en una universidad privada de la Ciudad de México. Se consideraron como variables predictoras del rendimiento las calificaciones en el Examen Nacional de Ingreso a la Educación Superior (EXANI II), el promedio general de preparatoria y el puntaje obtenido en el cuestionario sobre problemas sociales (DIT). Participaron 240 alumnos de ambos sexos, inscritos en la carrera de Psicología, que tenían en promedio 20 años. Los resultados permitieron observar que las calificaciones más altas que se obtuvieron en el EXANI-II fueron en las áreas de razonamiento verbal y numeric, y después en el área de español. Asimismo, se encontró que el puntaje en el EXANI-II, el promedio de bachillerato y el desarrollo moral permitieron predecir el rendimiento académico en el primer año de la carrera.

The objective of this investigation was to find out the predictive validity of the admission process regarding academic performance during the first year towards a degree in a private university in Mexico City. The grades derived from the National Examination for Admission into Higher Education (EXANI II), the general average grades from Senior High school and the points obtained through a questionnaire on social problems (DIT) were considered as variables for predicting performance. Two hundred and forty male and female students, registered in Psychology, took part in this investigation. Their average age was 20 years old. The results showed that the highest grades obtained in the EXANI II were in the areas of numeric and verbal reasoning followed by Spanish. Likewise, it was found that the number of points obtained in the EXANI II, the average high school grades and the students’ moral development made it possible to predict academic performance for the first year of their career.

Pobreza y apoyo social: un estudio comparativo en tres niveles socioeconómicos / Poverty and social support: a comparative study in three socioeconomic levels

Son numerosos los estudios que han reportado que el apoyo social promueve el bienestar físico y mental. Las personas que se sienten apoyadas por sus amigos y familia presentan menos ansiedad y depresión, tienen un sistema inmunológico más fuerte y una mayor autoestima. La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo conocer la percepción del apoyo social de tres grupos socioeconómicos (N=918) y su relación con algunas variables psicológicas como la autoestima, las estrategias de afrontamiento, el locus de control, la depresión, la motivación al logro y el bienestar subjetivo. Los hallazgos muestran que para los tres grupos la principal fuente de apoyo es la familia de origen, seguida de la iglesia y la religión. Existen algunas diferencias en la percepción del apoyo social entre los grupos y además se observó que ciertas características de personalidad están asociadas con un mayor apoyo social percibido.

Several studies have reported that social support promotes the mental and physical well-being. The people that feel supported by their friends and family, present less anxiety and depression, have a stronger immune system and a greater self-esteem. The current research had the objective the social support perception of three socioeconomic groups (N=918) and its relations with some psychological variables as self-esteem, coping, locus of control, depression, achievement motivation and subjective well-being. The findings show that for the three groups the main source of support is the nuclear family, followed by the church and the religion. However, some differences in the perception of the social support between the groups do exist, and also certain characteristics of personality were found to be associated with a greater social support perceived.

Un solo rostro y tres maneras de mirarlo: El significado de pobreza segun el nivel socioeconomico / Only face and three ways of looking it: the eaning of poverty according to socio-economic level

Se investigó el significado psicológico de la pobreza en tres grupos sociales: pobreza extrema, pobreza moderada y no pobreza. Se utilizó la técnica de Redes Semánticas Naturales. Los participantes fueron 900 personas, 50 por ciento varones y 50 por ciento mujeres, de México, entre los 19 y los 72 años de edad. Se seleccionaron según el nivel de pobreza, basado en la clasificación de la ONU-CEPAL-INEGI. A todos los participantes se les pidió que definieran la pobreza usando 5 palabras sueltas; y luego colocar esas palabras en una jerarquía según su relación importancia o cercanía a pobreza. Los descriptores que dieron los participantes agruparon en seis categorías: 1) problemas sociales 2) características monetarias 3)características no monetarias 4) estados emocionales y físicos 5) características de personalidad 6)valores. Se presenta un análisis de los resultados para los tres niveles de pobreza. El presente trabajo tiene el propósito de conocer y comparar el significado psicológico de la pobreza en tres grupos: pobres extremos, pobres moderados y no pobres. Para ello se utilizó la técnica de Redes Semánticas Naturales, inicialmente planteada por Figueroa, González y Solis (1981 en Valdés, 1998). Los resultados muestran que existieron grandes similitudes en las asociaciones que los tres grupos emitieron frente al estímulo pobreza, dando un peso semántico semejante en algunos tipos de descriptores. Por otra parte el grupo de pobreza extremos mostró una gran riqueza semántica al referirse a características de personalidad asociadas a la pobreza. Existieron descriptores que fueron solamente mencionados por alguno de los grupos, lo cual muestra las particularidades en la percepción de la pobreza, según la condición económica de los participantes